Introduction ARCHAEOPTERYX: Perhaps the most important fossil find in palaeontology, Archaeopteryx, often called the 'first bird,' remains the best-known example in the fossil record of the evolutionary bridge between non-avian dinosaurs and modern birds. This article explores the history, anatomy, behavior, and relevance of Archaeopteryx, in detail as a transitional…
Introduction PANCREATIC GLAND: The pancreas is a vital organ located in the abdomen, behind the stomach, that plays an essential role in both digestive and endocrine processes. It serves two primary functions: producing digestive enzymes that assist in breaking down food in the small intestine and secreting hormones that regulate…
Introduction SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAY: Signal transduction refers to the process by which a cell converts an external signal (such as a molecule or environmental change) into a functional response. This intricate biological mechanism allows cells to communicate with each other and respond to changes in their environment. Signal transduction pathways…
Introduction The Venus Flower Basket (scientifically known as Euplectella aspergillum) is one of the most intriguing and beautiful creatures inhabiting the ocean's deep-sea environments. While its appearance is striking and delicate, the creature's role in the marine ecosystem, as well as its intriguing biological processes, make it a subject of…
Introduction Breathing and respiration are fundamental physiological processes that enable life to exist on Earth. Whether you're a human, a bird, a fish, or even a microbe, these processes are essential for converting oxygen into the energy needed for survival. Despite being a universal necessity across life forms, the mechanisms…
Introduction FUNCTION OF PANCREAS: The pancreas, a crucial yet often overlooked organ, plays a central role in maintaining the body's overall metabolic balance and digestive health. While its contribution is not as widely recognized as that of the heart or brain, the pancreas is indispensable for functions that regulate blood…
Introduction Heart valve disorders represent a group of conditions that affect the heart’s ability to pump blood efficiently, disrupting normal circulation. These conditions are significant health concerns because the heart valves play a crucial role in regulating blood flow throughout the body. In a healthy heart, four valves— the mitral,…
Introduction ARTERIES AND VEINS: The circulatory system is one of the most vital components of the human body, responsible for transporting blood, oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to every part of the body. At the heart of this system are the arteries and veins, two types of blood vessels that play…
Introduction VITILIGO CAUSES: Vitiligo is a skin disorder characterized by the gradual loss of pigment, which results in the appearance of white patches on various parts of the body. It is a condition that affects approximately 1-2% of the global population, crossing all ethnic groups, genders, and ages. While it…
Introduction LUNG CANCER SYMPTOMS: Lung cancer is one of the most common and deadly forms of cancer worldwide, with millions of people diagnosed each year. While smoking is a major risk factor, non-smokers can also develop the disease. Early detection plays a crucial role in improving outcomes, but recognizing lung…
Introduction The lungs are vital organs responsible for breathing and gas exchange in the human body. They provide oxygen to the bloodstream and remove carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism. The health of our lungs is paramount to our overall well-being, yet many people overlook the importance of lung…
Introduction Alzheimer disease is one of the most devastating and complex neurological disorders, affecting millions of people worldwide. It is the leading cause of dementia, characterized by a gradual and progressive decline in memory, cognitive function, and behavior. Alzheimer's not only affects the individuals who suffer from it but also…
Introduction The blood brain barrier (BBB) is one of the most fascinating and vital components of the human body. This selective barrier acts as the brain’s primary defense mechanism, regulating the passage of substances between the blood and the central nervous system (CNS). While the BBB is crucial for maintaining…
Introduction ADVANCES IN NEUROSCIENCE: Neuroscience, the study of the brain and nervous system, has seen tremendous advances over the past few decades. From the advent of powerful imaging techniques to breakthroughs in neuroplasticity, artificial intelligence (AI) applications, and gene therapy, the field is continually evolving. The quest to understand the…
Introduction The human brain is an extraordinary organ—one that controls every aspect of our physical and mental functions. From regulating basic bodily functions such as heartbeat and breathing to enabling complex thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, the brain is at the center of everything that makes us human. This article offers…
Introduction Hormones are powerful chemical messengers that regulate a wide variety of processes in the body, including metabolism, growth, mood, reproduction, and immune function. Despite their crucial role in maintaining homeostasis, hormones remain relatively misunderstood by many. This article provides a comprehensive guide to hormones, their functions, types, and the…
Introduction The digestive system is one of the most complex and crucial systems in the human body. It plays a vital role in breaking down food and absorbing nutrients, which are essential for maintaining energy levels, building tissues, and supporting overall bodily functions. Without a properly functioning digestive system, the…
Introduction Bird bioacoustics: Birds are among the most vocal creatures on Earth, and their sounds—ranging from complex songs to simple calls—serve a wide range of functions essential to their survival and reproduction. The study of bird sounds, or bird bioacoustics, is a rapidly growing subfield of bioacoustics that explores how…
Introduction Human health is the foundation of a productive, fulfilling life. From the foods we eat to the exercise we do, our mental health, and our social relationships, every aspect plays a role in determining the overall quality of our health. As the world continues to confront various health challenges…
Introduction Bioacoustics is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on the study of sound production, transmission, and reception in living organisms. This growing area of research has gained increasing attention in recent years due to its significant implications in ecology, evolutionary biology, conservation, and even human health. By examining how animals,…
Introduction Neurons are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, responsible for transmitting information throughout the body. These specialized cells form the core of neural communication, enabling everything from basic bodily functions to complex thought processes. In this article, we will explore the structure and function of neurons,…
Introduction The nervous system is one of the most complex and fascinating systems in the human body, controlling and coordinating essential functions such as movement, thought, memory, sensation, and autonomic regulation of vital processes. The nervous system allows organisms to interact with their environment and maintain homeostasis by processing external…
Introduction This article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of tumors, discussing their types, causes, how they are diagnosed, and the latest treatments available. We will also explore emerging research and technologies that have the potential to transform the way tumors are treated and managed. UNDERSTANDING TUMOURS: CAUSES, TYPES AND…
Introduction to Animal Kingdom The animal kingdom, scientifically designated as Kingdom Animalia, embodies an extraordinary diversity of life forms, each playing a pivotal role in sustaining Earth's intricate ecological equilibrium. Ranging from microscopic organisms to massive marine mammals, the sheer variety within this kingdom continues to intrigue evolutionary biologists, ecologists,…
What is Phylum Echinodermata ? Phylum Echinodermata, derived from the Greek words "echinos" meaning spiny, and "derma" meaning skin, represents one of the most fascinating and diverse groups of marine animals. These creatures, known for their striking symmetry, unique adaptations, and ecological importance, inhabit oceans worldwide, from shallow tidal pools…
Introduction Horseshoe crabs are fascinating marine arthropods that have existed on Earth for over 450 million years, long before the dinosaurs roamed the planet. Often referred to as "living fossils," these creatures have remained relatively unchanged through millennia. Beyond their evolutionary marvel, horseshoe crabs are vital for coastal ecosystems and…
Introduction - TRYPANOSOMA Trypanosomiasis, also known as "sleeping sickness," is caused by microscopic parasites of the species Trypanosoma brucei. It is transmitted by the tsetse fly (Glossina species), which is found only in rural Africa. Although the infection is not found in the United States, historically, it has been a…
Introduction - Phylum Arthropoda The animal kingdom is vast and incredibly diverse, with one phylum that stands out due to its sheer numbers and diversity: Arthropoda. This phylum includes familiar creatures such as insects, spiders, crustaceans, and millipedes. Arthropods make up approximately 75% of all known animal species on Earth,…
Introduction to Phylum Mollusca Phylum Mollusca, one of the largest and most diverse groups in the animal kingdom, holds a fascinating array of creatures. From the garden snail to the mighty giant squid, mollusks are an integral part of ecosystems and have played a vital role in human history and…
Understanding Invertebrates Invertebrates are a fascinating and diverse group of animals that dominate the planet in sheer numbers and variety. They are animals without backbones, accounting for over 97% of all animal species. From microscopic organisms like amoebas to complex creatures like octopuses, invertebrates play critical roles in ecosystems worldwide.…
Introduction The ocean is home to some of the most mysterious and awe-inspiring creatures, but few captivate our imagination quite like the octopus. Known for their intelligence, camouflage abilities, and otherworldly appearance, octopuses are nothing short of remarkable. One of their most intriguing features is their unique circulatory system, which…
Introduction Pearls are made by molluscs, like oysters. Pearls are small and often white but sometimes in pale colours or even black. They are often rounding, but sometimes half-round, oval, or in different shapes. Pearls are often used for jewellery. A cultured pearl is a pearl created by an oyster…
INTRODUCTION :- Gametogenesis Gametogenesis is a biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor cells undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes. Depending on the biological life cycle of the organism, gametogenesis occurs by meiotic division of diploid gametocytes into various gametes, or by mitotic division of…
INTRODUCTION :- AMOEBIASIS Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite responsible for a disease called amoebiasis. It occurs usually in the large intestine and causes internal inflammation as its name suggests (histo = tissue, lytic = destroying). 50 million people are infected worldwide, mostly in tropical countries in areas of poor…
INTRODUCTION :- WHAT IS A PARASITE A parasite is a living organism, which takes /draws its nourishment & other needs from a host; the host is an organism which supports the parasite by providing food & shelter. The study of parasites is termed as parasitology. The father of parasitology is…
Introduction SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF ANTS: Ants are extraordinary creatures, known for their complex social structures, efficient organization, and remarkable cooperative behavior. As eusocial insects, ants live in large colonies where each individual plays a specific role, ensuring the colony's survival and success. These roles are well-defined, and ants communicate, cooperate,…
Introduction SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF BEES: Bees are among the most fascinating creatures in the animal kingdom, renowned for their highly organized, cooperative social structures. As eusocial insects, bees live in large colonies with a distinct division of labor that supports the survival and thriving of the hive. The social behavior…
Introduction THE ROLE OF INVERTEBRATES IN BIODIVERSITY: Invertebrates, the animals without a backbone, make up the vast majority of species on Earth. Representing more than 95% of all animal species, they range from tiny microscopic creatures to large, visible forms like squids and crabs. While they often go unnoticed in…
Chordates and Non Chordates The animal kingdom is diverse, encompassing organisms with varied structures, functionalities, and evolutionary adaptations. One of the primary ways biologists classify animals is based on the presence or absence of specific structural features, notably the notochord. This distinction leads to the classification of animals into two…
Protozoa Locomotory Systems Most free-living protozoans move, using either cilia, flagella, or flowing cytoplasmic fingers called pseudopodia ( pseudo = G: false; podium = G: foot). The members of some species possess different locomotory systems at different stages of the life cycle or under different environmental conditions. it has become…
Introduction CILIATED PROTOZOANS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS: Ciliated protozoans are a diverse group of single-celled organisms within the kingdom Protista, known for their characteristic cilia—short, hair-like structures that cover the surface of the cell. These cilia are used for locomotion, feeding, and sensory functions. Ciliated protozoans play significant ecological roles in…
Introduction FLAGELLATED PROTOZOANS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS: Flagellated protozoans are a diverse group of single-celled organisms within the kingdom Protista that move and feed using one or more whip-like structures called flagella. These flagella allow the organisms to move through water or other liquids, and they also play a crucial role…
Introduction CORAL REEFS AND THEIR TYPES: Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and vibrant ecosystems on the planet. Often referred to as the "rainforests of the sea," they provide essential habitats for a wide array of marine life, including fish, invertebrates, and other marine organisms. Beyond their biodiversity,…
Introduction METAGENESIS IN CNIDARIANS: Metagenesis, also known as the alternation of generations, is a biological process in which an organism alternates between two distinct forms during its lifecycle. This phenomenon is particularly common in certain groups of invertebrates, including cnidarians, a diverse group of animals that includes jellyfish, corals, and…
Introduction ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF JELLYFISH: Jellyfish are captivating and ancient marine animals that have been around for over 500 million years. Despite their simplicity, they exhibit remarkable adaptations that allow them to thrive in various marine environments. Known for their gelatinous bodies and mesmerizing movement, jellyfish are members of…
Introduction THE ORIGIN OF LIFE: The question of how life began on Earth is one of the most profound and enigmatic inquiries in science. Despite decades of research, the exact process remains elusive, but scientists have developed several hypotheses that seek to explain the origins of life. This article delves…
Introduction Anatomy and Physiology of Ascaris lumbricoides: Ascaris lumbricoides is one of the most well-known parasitic nematodes (roundworms) that infects humans. It is responsible for the disease known as ascariasis, which affects millions of people worldwide, particularly in regions with poor sanitation. To understand how this parasite works, it is…
Introduction ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF LEECHES: Leeches are a fascinating group of segmented worms belonging to the class Hirudinea within the phylum Annelida. These organisms are known for their specialized adaptations and unique lifestyle, ranging from freshwater species to parasitic forms found in a variety of hosts. Although they are…
Introduction Invertebrate taxonomy is a crucial subdiscipline within the field of zoology that focuses on the classification and identification of invertebrate animals—those without a backbone. As the largest group of animals on Earth, invertebrates make up approximately 95% of all known animal species. These organisms range from microscopic entities like…
Introduction KNOCKOUT MICE AND THEIR APPLICATION: Knockout mice are genetically engineered animals in which specific genes have been inactivated or "knocked out." This tool has revolutionized the field of biomedical research, providing scientists with a way to study the effects of individual genes on development, disease, and overall physiology. By…
Introduction CELL CYCLE CONTROL IN Xenopus : The cell cycle is a highly regulated series of events that lead to cell division, ensuring the accurate distribution of genetic material to daughter cells. In multicellular organisms, the regulation of the cell cycle is critical for maintaining genomic integrity, and disruptions in…
Introduction VACCINATION STRATEGIES TO COMBAT SARS-CoV-2 : The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, has reshaped global health strategies. One of the most significant tools in controlling the spread of the virus and preventing severe disease outcomes has been the rapid development and deployment of vaccines. Vaccination strategies…
INTRODUCTION Common zoonotic diseases: Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases that are transmitted from animals to humans. These diseases are caused by a variety of pathogens including viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi, and they account for a significant portion of emerging infectious diseases. Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted through direct contact…
Introduction DISEASES CAUSED BY HELMINTHS: Helminths are parasitic worms that cause a range of diseases in humans. These worms are multicellular organisms, and they belong to various classifications such as nematodes (roundworms), cestodes (tapeworms), and trematodes (flukes). Helminthic infections are common in tropical and subtropical regions, especially where sanitation is…
Introduction Ascariasis and its vector: Ascariasis is one of the most prevalent parasitic infections worldwide, caused by the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides. This intestinal parasite thrives in areas with poor sanitation, affecting millions of people, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. In this article, we will explore the basics of ascariasis,…
INTRODUCTION Filariasis and its vector: Filariasis is a serious parasitic disease that affects millions of people worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. The disease is caused by thread-like worms that live in the lymphatic system, leading to a condition known as lymphatic filariasis. It is primarily transmitted through the…
Introduction Vitamin D and it’s deficiency: Vitamin D is a vital nutrient that plays a crucial role in calcium metabolism, bone health, immune function, and overall well-being in animals. However, vitamin D deficiency is a common but often overlooked issue that can lead to significant health problems in both wild…
INTRODUCTION Malaria and its vector: Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by the Plasmodium parasite and transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Despite significant progress in controlling the disease, malaria remains a major public health issue, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. In this article,…
Introduction Dengue fever and its vector: Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne viral disease that has become a significant public health concern, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. With millions of cases reported worldwide each year, dengue fever is transmitted primarily by the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes. These vectors…
Introduction Blood and its components are often referred to as the "river of life," plays a pivotal role in maintaining the functionality of the human body. It is responsible for transporting essential nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells while removing waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea. Beyond these…
Introduction Pineal gland functions and disorders: The pineal gland, a small, pea-sized structure located deep within the brain, has long intrigued scientists and philosophers alike due to its association with the regulation of sleep and its enigmatic position in the human body. Often referred to as the "third eye," this…
Introduction Thyroid gland functions and disorders: The thyroid gland, a butterfly-shaped organ located at the base of the neck, is crucial for regulating the body's metabolism, growth, and development. Through the secretion of thyroid hormones, this small gland influences nearly every organ system in the body. Understanding the anatomy, function,…
Introduction Adrenal gland functions and disorders: The adrenal glands are small, yet powerful, endocrine organs located on top of each kidney. These glands are crucial for the production of hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including metabolism, immune response, blood pressure, and the body's response to stress. Understanding the anatomy,…
Introduction Parathyroid gland functions and disorders: The parathyroid glands are small, yet essential, structures located behind the thyroid gland in the neck. Despite their size, these glands play a critical role in regulating calcium levels in the body, which is vital for maintaining bone health, nerve function, and muscle contractions.…
Introduction Birds and their beaks: Birds are a diverse and fascinating group of animals, each species uniquely adapted to its environment. One of the most striking examples of this adaptation is the variety of beak shapes and sizes found across the bird kingdom. These beaks are not just physical features;…
Introduction Epitheliochorial Placenta Structure and Function- The epitheliochorial placenta is a unique and significant type of placental structure found in certain mammals, particularly ungulates like horses, pigs, and some primates. This form of placenta is crucial in understanding reproductive biology, maternal-fetal interactions, and the evolutionary adaptations that different species have…
Introduction The haemochorial placenta is a crucial structure in mammalian reproduction, particularly in humans and other primates. This type of placenta plays a vital role in fetal development, ensuring the transfer of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products between the mother and the developing fetus. Understanding the structure, function, and significance…
Introduction The Human Heart: Structure and Function - The human heart is a vital organ that works ceaselessly to keep us alive. It pumps blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing waste products like carbon dioxide. Understanding how the heart functions, its anatomy, and how…
INTRODUCTION The circulatory system of pigeon, like all birds, is a marvel of efficiency and specialization, enabling them to meet the high metabolic demands of flight and other aspects of their active lifestyle. This essay explores the anatomy, function, adaptations, and comparative aspects of the circulatory system in pigeons. ANATOMY…
INTRODUCTION The circulatory system of reptiles is a vital component of their physiology, enabling efficient transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout their bodies. Unlike mammals and birds, reptiles exhibit a range of adaptations in their circulatory systems that reflect their evolutionary history and ecological niche. This essay explores…
INTRODUCTION The circulatory system of amphibians, a class of vertebrates that includes frogs, toads, salamanders, and newts, is adapted for their unique dual life in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. This system ensures efficient transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout their bodies, allowing them to thrive in diverse…
INTRODUCTION The circulatory system of teleosts, or bony fish, is a marvel of efficiency and adaptation, evolved over millions of years to support their aquatic lifestyle. This system ensures the delivery of oxygen and nutrients throughout the body while removing waste products, playing a crucial role in their survival. In…
INTRODUCTION Placenta and types of placenta: The placenta is a vital organ in most mammals, including humans, that serves as a connection between the developing fetus and the mother. It facilitates the exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste products between the maternal and fetal circulatory systems, providing essential support for…
INTRODUCTION Metamorphosis in insects is a fascinating biological process that showcases the remarkable adaptability and complexity of these creatures. It refers to the series of distinct developmental stages an insect undergoes during its life cycle, typically involving a transformation from egg to larva, pupa, and finally adult. This phenomenon is…
INTRODUCTION The Metamorphosis stages in lifecycle of frogs is a captivating process that showcases nature's brilliance in transforming a water-dwelling creature into a terrestrial marvel. From the initial stages of egg-laying to the emergence of a fully formed adult frog, this intricate journey encompasses various physiological and behavioral adaptations. In…
INTRODUCTION Blastula and types of blastula: The blastula is a pivotal stage in embryonic development, marking the transition from the zygote to a multicellular embryo. Characterized by a hollow, spherical structure composed of a single layer of cells, the blastula sets the stage for subsequent gastrulation, formation of coelom and…
DISSECTION OF PALAEMON (PRAWN) External features of Palaemon (Prawn) It is fresh-water prawn, which forms a highly palatable dish. Prawn is the most favourite and well-liked animal by the students. Total length : 25 to 35 cm. Shape: Spindle-shaped, elongated and bilaterally symmetrical. Colour: Pale blue or greenish it becomes…
CLASSIFICATION OF CHONDRILLA Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.) Class :- Demospongiae (Skeleton of spongin fibres or siliceous spicules which are not six-rayed.) Order :- Tetractinellida (Spicules tetraxon) Genus :- Chondrilla Habit and habitat of Chondrilla Chondrilla is a marine tetractinellid demosponge. Distribution of Chondrilla…
CLASSIFICATION OF OSCARELLA Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.) Class :- Demospongiae (Skeleton of spongin fibres or siliceous spicules which are not six-rayed.) Order :- Myxospongida (Skeleton absent.) Genus :- Oscarella Habit and habitat of Oscarella Oscarella is found in shallow water forming encrustation over…
DISSECTION OF POECILOCERUS (GRASSHOPPER) General anatomy of Poecilocerus (Grasshopper) Procedure For Dissection of poecilocerus (Grasshopper) take either preserved or freshly chloroformed grasshopper. Fix it in the dissecting dish. Cut the lateral membranes between terga and sterna. Remove carefully the cut tergal plates over thorax and head region to study the…
DISSECTION OF PERIPLANETA AMERICANA (COCKROACH) This is a common cockroach. This insect is the most suited for laboratory study due to its manageable size, abundant occurrence and being least specialized insect. It is Nocturnal and cursorial, inhabiting drain pipes and backeries. External features of periplaneta americana (Cockroach) Procedure For Dissection…
CLASSIFICATION OF PHERONEMA Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.) Class :- Hexactinellida (Glass sponges with siliceous spicules of triaxon or six-pointed type.) Order :- Amphidiscophora (Hexaster spicules absent and amphidisks present.) Genus :- Pheronema Habit and habitat of Pheronema Pheronema is found on the bottom…
CLASSIFICATION OF HYALONEMA Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.) Class :- Hexactinellida (Glass sponges with siliceous spicules of triaxon or six-pointed type.) Order :- Amphidiscophora (Hexaster spicules absent and amphidisks present.) Habit and habitat Hyalonema is marine animal, found 60 to 95 fathoms deep. Distribution…
DISSECTION OF SEPIA (CUTTLE FISH) External features of Sepia (Cuttle Fish) Sepia is commonly found in sea in India. Very favourite class room specimen and very good animal tc study the nervous system. The preserved specimen is brownish in colour bluish with leathery texture. The animal can atonce be recognized…
DISSECTION OF LOLIGO (SQUID) External features For dissection of loligo (Squid)Take a nicely preserved specimen. Loligo (Squid) can be easily differentiated from Sepia by having lateral fin in the posterior region of the trunk. Study various structures in head and trunk regions. Nervous system Procedure Dissect the animal by making…
CLASSIFICATION OF EUPLECTELLA Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical) Class :- Hexactinellida (Glass sponges with siliceous spicules of triaxon or six-pointed type.) Order :- Hexasterophora (Hexaster spicule present. Amphid is absent) Genus :- Euplectella Goegraphical Distribution It is distributed near Philippines and West Indies. Habit…
Classification of Leucilla Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical)Class :- Calcarea (Calcareous spicules present)Order :- Heterocoel (Syconoid sponges with internal folds) Genus :- Leucilla Distribution It is a small solitary and marine sponge Habit and Habitat Common in Europe. Distributed from Rhode Island to Greenland.…
DISSSECTION OF PILA GLOBOSA (APPLE SNAIL) Pila Globosa is the most common and abundant gastropod, inhabiting ponds, rivers, tanks and rice-fields. It is very familiar for dissection and is also famous for its very slow movement called as snail pace. External features of Pila Globosa (Apple Snail) with shell and…
DISSECTION OF UNIO OR LAMELLIDENS External features of Unio or Lamellidens Unio is the most familiar specimen amongst laboratory dissections. Unio is found abundantly in lime-rich water and in the bottom of lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. Generally they are found half-embedded in mud or sand at the bottom. Procedure…
DISSECTION OF HIRUDINARIA GRANULOSA (LEECH) It is the common cattle leech. For studying external features, take freshly killed specimens with chloroform vapours. External features of Hirudinaria Granulosa (Leech) Number of segments : 33. Number of annuli in a typical middle segment is 5. Total length : 5 to 10 cm.…
DISSECTION OF PHERETIMA POSTHUMA (EARTHWORM) External features of pheretima posthuma (earthworm) It is common earthworm. For external features of pheretima posthuma (earthworm), living narcotised or preserved specimens can be examined. Observe and draw the following parts. Draw separately dorsal and ventral suifaces. Distinguish the dorsal suiface by median blood vessel.…
DISSECTION OF NEREIS (CLAM WORM) General Instructions for Dissection of ascaris (round worm) While dissecting the animal keep in mind the following points. Listen and follow carefully the instructions given by the teacher in your practical class. Study well about the internal structures of the animal to be dissected. Keep…
DISSECTION OF ASCARIS (ROUND WORM) General Instructions for Dissection of ascaris (round worm) While dissecting the animal keep in mind the following points. Listen and follow carefully the instructions given by the teacher in your practical class. Study well about the internal structures of the animal to be dissected. Keep…
Slide Preparation Of Coelenterate (Obelia Colony & Obelia Medusa) Obelia Obelia is colonial, mainly sedentary hydrozoan zoophyte attached to the seaweed, hills and rocks.It is mostly found in shallow water and also up to approximately 250 ft.deep. There are currently 120 known species, with more to be discovered Method for…
Slide Preparation of Porifera (Sponge and Gemmules) Introduction The body wall of sponges is supported by various minute crystalline and calcareous bodies called as spicules. These are secreted by special mesenchymal cells called scleroblasts. Spicules provide taxonomic characters and are classified according to the axas and rays called as axon,…
Classification of Paramecium Phylum :- Protozoa → Unicellular Sub-Phylum :- Ciliophora → Ciliary movement in all stages Class :- Ciliata → Cilia present throughout life Sub - Class :- Euciliata → Cytopharynx, contractile vacuole, mega and micronucleus present Order :- Holotricha → Equal cilia. Sub-order :- Trichostomata → Mouth leads…
Classification of Hydra Phylum- Coelenterata Class- Hydrozoa Order- Hydroidea Suborder – Anthomedusae Genus - Hydra General Study of Hydra Hydra belongs to the most primitive Class Hydrozoa of Phylum coelenterata . It is simple in form and structure and serves as a good example for the study of coelenterate organization…
Classification of Balantidium Phylum :-Protozoa - (Unicellular)Sub-phylum :- Ciliophora - (Cilia movement in all stages.)Class :- Ciliata - (Cilia present throughout life.)Sub-Class :- Euciliata - (Cytopharynx, contractile vacuole, mega-and micronucleus present)Order :- Spirotricha -(Adoral membranelles extending around peristome in clockwise direction.)Genus :- Balantidium General Study of Balantidium Balantidium is commonly…
Classification of Opalina Phylum :- Protozoa (Unicellular)Sub-phylum :- Plasmodroma (Cilia absent, locomotion by pseudopodia.)Class :- Opalinata (Cilia-like organelles in oblique rows)Genus :- Opalina General Study of Opalina Opalinids are entocommensals in intestine and rectum of tadpoles and adult anuran amphibians (frogs and toads) and occasionally other cold blooded vertebrates. It…
Classification of Euglena Phylum :- Protozoa (Unicellular) Subphylum :- Sarcomastigophora (Cilia absent, locomotion by pseudopodia) Class :- Phytomastigophora (Chromatophores present in majority) Order :- Euglenida (Larger forms with one or more flagella) Genus :- Euglena General Study of Euglena Euglena is free-living and solitary. It occurs in stagnant water of…
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